))
(All dates are B.C.E.):
Xia Dynasty (ca. 2205-1766), Shang Dynasty (ca. 1766-1122), Zhou Dynasty (1122-221)(Price & Feinman 2004)
The placement of the Erlitou culture into the chronology encompassed by the San dai has been problematic. Radiocarbon dating of the artifacts and strata yield dates in the range of 2000-1500 B.C.E., placing Erlitou in the Xia Dynasty. However, some think that Erlitou may belong to the Early Shang period (Rawson 1980).
Zhengzhou represents the middle Shang period. A prominent feature of this site is the massive wall that surrounded the city center, estimated to have originally been about 10 meters high and 20 meters wide. (Raswon 1980, pp. 42-44). Forms of scapulimancy were practiced, and evidence of human sacrifice is abundant at Zhengzhou, but no inscriptions appeared on oracle bones during this time as would be found in the latter periods at An-yang. The layout of Zhegnzhou, with ceremonial/governmental centers enclosed by a wall, and workshops for bronze, bone, and pottery as well as cemeteries, outside the wall, was the typical design for Shang settlements.
Archaeologically, An-yang is the most important Shang site. This capital city was also called Yinxu, and subsequent ages referred to it as the Ruins of Yin. This was the location of the last capital and ceremonial center of the Shang dynasty, existing for approximately 273 years. It was during this time that diviners began extensive writing on oracle bones. Recent research suggests, however, that the An-yang period was not the first time turtle plastrons were inscribed. Excavations at the Neolithic site of Jiahu Henan province, as is An-yang and other Shang sites) has turned up plastrons with inscribed signs. These signs resemble later Chinese script, but are considered to the be forerunners of a written script, and not a script per se. Nonetheless, being dated to the seventh millennium B.C.E., they predate the earliest Mesopotamian writing by three millennia. (Li, Harbottle, Zhang, and Wang 2003). It is also not clear what these earlier turtle shells were used for, but they probably were not used for divination. They are found as grave goods, and ideas as to their function range from use as containers to musical instruments. While scapulimancy was practiced since Neolithic times, use of plastrons for divination (plastromancy) is still regarded as a Shang dynasty innovation.
Archaeologically, An-yang is divided into five periods. During the span of An-yang's existence, twelve kings sat upon the Shang throne. However, evidence suggests that it was only during the reigns of the last nine kings that the practice of inscribing oracle bones came into use.
The nine kings are grouped into five archaeological periods thus: (Chang 1980, pp. 99-104)
Period I: Wu Ding
Period II: Tsu Keng, Tsu Chia
Period III: Lin Hsin, K'ang T'ing
Period IV: Wu Yi, Weng Wu Ting
Period V: Ti Yi, Ti Hsin
The late Chinese archaeologist K.C. Chang emphasized the importance of the oracle bone inscriptions in dating events in the Shang dynasty. This would be classified as a relative dating technique, but in many instances, it seems to enable more specific dating than standard absolute techniques will allow. The reason for this stems mainly from the fact that the total period of time under study at An-yang is approximately 273 years, but many absolute dating methods have standard deviations almost as long. Hence the content of the inscriptions, the context in which various names appear (and reappear years later), the style of their execution, etc.; all are carefully analyzed to form the chronology of An-yang (Chang 1980).
An excellent example of the role the oracle bone inscriptions have played in dating is illustrated in the case of the tomb of Fu Hao, otherwise known as Tomb Five.
This tomb was discovered intact, perfectly preserved with no
evidence of grave robbery or other disturbance. Fu Hao is thought to
have been a queen or consort/concubine of the first period king Wu
Ding.
However, due to some difficulties with the stratigraphy, dating this
tomb to one of the five periods has revolved around analysis of the
bronzes, jades, and other grave goods, but especially the
analysis of the inscribed scapulae and plastrons found in the tomb
(Chang 1986).
The use of the inscriptions for dating purposes in this instance reveals the complexities involved in understanding the culture of the An-yang period, and the difficulty of drawing conclusions about the occupant of Tomb Five in light of those complexities. For example, there are oracle bone inscriptions from Periods I, III, and IV bearing the words "Fu Hao." Adding to the puzzle, artifacts from Tomb Five also bear other names, such as "Hou Mu Hsin" and "Hou Hsin." (Chang 1986, pp. 131-140). The questions revolve around issues of individuals being identified by similar (inherited) titles throughout all periods, (hence "Fu Hao" in periods I-IV), and/or single individuals being addressed by multiple titles/names; one form of address may be their personal "real" name, another an official bureaucratic position, another for their clan, and so on.